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Saturday, August 31, 2019

Promote Equality and Inclusion in Health, Social Care or Children’s and Young People’s Essay

Outcome 1 1. What is meant by: Diversity –our society is made up of people with a wide range of characteristics and backgrounds. This diversity contributes strength to a community but sadly it is often perceived as a problem. Equality – seeing each child as an individual will enable you to promote their right to have access to equality of opportunity and to be treated with equal concern so they are able to progress along the pathway development. Inclusion- to promote the positive aspects of diversity and to offer children equal chances in life, all settings for children would work towards inclusive. 2. What are the potential effects of discrimination? There are lots of different effects of discrimination for example children do not progress and experience success in their lives and the negative effects this has on their self-esteem may dampen their motivation levels. 3. How can inclusive practice promote equality and support diversity? Children’s right to have access to equality of opportunity. Promoting the positive aspects of diversity. Settings should always aim for inclusion, which promotes both equality and diversity. Outcome 2 1. How do legislation and codes of practice relating to equality, diversity and discrimination apply to own work role? For our setting to work in an inclusive way they would have to work with the legal framework to work with families in a respectful way. Laws alone cannot change prejudiced attitudes and assumptions or influence the way people think. Outcome 3 3. How could you challenge discrimination in a way that promotes change? Both children and adults can be the victim of prejudice or behaviour in discriminatory ways. Every setting should have strategies for dealing with any issue that is challenged. You should help both sides those who are subject to the discrimination and those who are the discriminator, this is a delicate matter and should be dealt with carefully.

Friday, August 30, 2019

Against schools Essay

The article Against Schools is a very intriguing article or could case great debate and concern about public schooling systems in America today. Born in Monongahela, Pa, John Taylor Gatto is a retired America school teacher with nearly 30 years of experience in the school system. Gatto is a recipient of many awards such as: The New York City Teacher of the Year award in 1989,1990, and 1991 and The New York State Teacher of the Year award in 1991. He is broadminded perilous of compulsory schooling, and author of several books on education. Gatto voiced his belief that the public school system that we use, is not there for educational means; instead, exist to fulfill the function to cripple children in the long run. After reading Gatto’s article and reasoning for his opinion, I harmonize with Gatto’s belief. His article explains how our system was constructed and its purpose. I felt that the points he made displayed a lot of truth in them and it brought to reality effects about public school systems that I would have never thought to question or recognize. In the article Against School, John Taylor Gatto expresses his outlook that the public school system isn’t there for informative measures, instead â€Å"it exist to fulfill six covert functions meant to cripple our kids. † (Gatto 14 ) He speaks about the public school system not being of what we think and how it originates from the Prussian culture, which is a system deliberately designed to produce ordinary brainpowers that are simply ran. He emphasizes in the article how mandatory schooling has encouraged children not to think at all as a result leaving â€Å"them sitting ducks for the modern era of marketing†. (Gatto 148) Gatto states the fact that do to the training in school, â€Å"we have become a nation of children, happy to surrender our judgments and our wills to political exhortations and commercial blandishments that would insult actual adults†. (Gatto 148) The article goes on to express Gatto’s opinion that the school system encourages children not to think for their selves and children should be taught to manage their own lives. He says that he feels the solution is to simply let them be their true selves. One of the major points that Gatto explains in the article Against School is how the public school system originates from the Prussian culture and how compulsory school was intended to be just what it had been for the Perssia. According to several sources, â€Å"Horace Mann, credited as the father of the American public school system, studied a wide variety of educational models before implementing the Prussian system designed by Fredrick the Great. King Frederick created a system that was engineered to teach obedience and solidify his control. Focusing on following directions, basic skills, and conformity, he sought to indoctrinate the nation from an early age. Isolating students in rows and teachers in individual classrooms fashioned a strict hierarchy—intentionally fostering fear and loneliness. Mann chose the Prussian model, with its depersonalized learning and strict hierarchy of power, because it was the cheapest and easiest way to teach literacy on a large scale. Social efficiency theorists who sought to industrialize the educational process perpetuated this system throughout the early twentieth century. Led by educators such as Ellwood P. Cubberley, they used education as a tool for social engineering. Building upon the depersonalized uniformity and rigid hierarchy of the Prussian system, they constructed an industrial schooling model designed to produce millions of workers for America’s factories. Believing that most of America’s students were destined for a life of menial, industrial labor, these theorists created a multi-track educational system meant to sort students from an early age. While the best and brightest were carefully groomed for leadership positions, the majority was relegated to a monotonous education of rote learning and task completion. Consequently, our schooling system is still locked into the Prussian-industrial framework of fear, isolation, and monotony. For both students and teachers, procedure is emphasized over innovation, uniformity over individual expression, and control over empowerment. It is, therefore, not surprising that the majority of America’s classrooms have changed little in over one hundred years. †(Web) Gatto makes this point by stating these historical facts in his article. Gatto also gives examples of the outcome of compulsory school, which he says, results in adults that are manageable beings. He says those adults by things they don’t need because they are trained to believe they give some sense of proudness like a television to order more things on TV. Gatto states, â€Å" Easy answers have removed the need to ask questions. † (Gatto148) The point is definite proven by Gatto in the article which is that â€Å" mandatory education serves children incidentally†¦ its real purpose is to turn our children into servants. † (Gatto 149) He feels that instead of let the government managing our children, the solution is to let them manage themselves. The best way this can be achieved in Gatto’s vision is through homeschooling children. When I thought about the public school system, I did not ever question its purpose but to be anything but benficual to children. I thought it was to enlighten them and bring out their true individualism and make them productive citizens in society. I agree with Gatto’s article after recalling back to my experience in school. Everything was so ordered and strict, to mold everyone to be what was told of them. I did from time to time question the why can I not do this that way or why can it not be something else and I was always told by my teachers because this is the right way. Everybody does it like this so you have to as well or you are wrong. Gatto says that schooling structures us into the reliant, mindless adults we are in ways like: â€Å"easy divorce encouraging us not to work on relationships, easy credit removing the need for fiscal control, easy entertainment removing the need to entertain one’s self, etc. † (Gatto148) It does not make sense that if we are each individuals, then why are we taught and ma to think the same. Gatto feels the solution is to go back to the original way and possibly teach children our selves, preferably at home not in a â€Å"institution and the government should not really have any say so over it. I believe that yes children should be encouraged to be who they truly are and explore their minds deepest capacities; however, there should still be some stucture in their lives outside of home. They need to learn to coexist with others and their own ideas as well. I do not agree with the idea of homeschooling completely. With the economy being the way it is families have to work to provide for there families and some families are single parent homes, therefore leaving no time to instruct the children to proper way. John Taylor Gatto purpose for wring the article Against schools, was to bring to light the issue that our government is corrupting Americans from the beginning through something almost everyone supports, Our educational system. Gatto more than prospered with attainment of his point being acknowledged. I was stunned to discover that the American public school system is one designed to casts an being’s mind to be what its told to be, not what it is suppose to be or wants to be, and that is very disturbing to me. Gatto bringing the origin of the public school system to light did his work justice. On the contrast, I do not believe that the resolution is to teach children at home. In conclusion, the reality of it is: even though the system is corrupt and controlling, it has been operating for years and no one has changed it. We will never be able to subdue the government, so the best is to just make do the way we can. Works Cited 1. http://thenewamericanacademy. org/index. php/home/our-philosophy-menu/the-prussian-industrial-model. 2. Gatto, John Taylor. â€Å"Against Schools. † Rereading America. 9th ed. Ed. Gary Colombo, Robert Cullen, Bonnie Lisle. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2013. p141-150.

Thursday, August 29, 2019

Why Cuxham Is Agrarian Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Why Cuxham Is Agrarian - Essay Example Every society incorporates a dominant economic activity, which helps the communities to lead their lives in an effective manner. It is eminent to state that cultivation is noted to be one of the most important economic activities in the Agrarian society. During the medieval ages, most of the regions were boosting their economy by cultivating in huge areas of land. However, these types of economic activities are specifically observed in the Agrarian society. Since the Roman times, the concept of Agrarian society has its prominence in the social structure of the world. The major characteristic of the mediaeval European ages with respect to Cuxham village were food grain cultivation, agricultural production as well as grazing of life stock. Those are the major instances of the Agrarian social structure in the mediaeval Europe. In this regard, to explain the actual scenario of the social pyramid of Agrarian society, Cuxham village has been taken as example for explaining the underlying f eatures in an appropriate manner (Forgeng). Since the medieval ages, most of the people belonging to Cuxham are leading a regular village lifestyle that reflects the Agrarian society. The empirical evidences regarding numerous villages in England existing in the thirteenth century provide a certain level of information, which apparently supports Cuxham as an Agrarian society. In addition, there are two distinct issues that are observed within the agrarian society i.e., technological arrangements as well as social arrangements.

Wednesday, August 28, 2019

Psychology case study on the character Sybil from the novel Sybil Essay

Psychology case study on the character Sybil from the novel Sybil author Schreiber - Essay Example Another common group of disorder is usually termed anxiety disorders. Personality disorder is not really a mental illness that tends to develop quite suddenly and usually in response to particular stresses. In fact, it develops slowly, as the person grows up and is thought to be mainly due to environment and upbringing. For example, in Sybil's case, she grew up in a family with no love, constant beatings and a mother who suffers from schizophrenia, naturally she will develop anti-social behavior or a paranoid personality; but it seems it's more than that because she developed 16 different personalities, worst is she has a male counterpart of herself. A growing body of evidence also suggests that early sexual abuse also distorts the development of a healthy personality. Sybil's case is more of psychoanalytic in nature because she in conflict with herself wherein her mind is an expression of conflicting forces - some conscious, the majority unconscious. Her condition involves the unconscious where unpleasant experiences are repressed, the conflict arising from the unconscious mind when her set of beliefs impacts adversely on another area of beliefs, causing emotional suffering felt as disappointment, anger or frustration. It also involves her drives and instincts as well as her personality in the genetic viewpoint. Years before, this illness was simply called hysteria. Sybil's traumatic childhood and the abuses that she had experienced resulted to the development of sixteen (16) personalities. Symptoms of the illness include amnesia, depersonalization, derealization, depression and anxiety or mental illness. Amnesia in this type of disorder is the experience at certain periods of time when Sybil forgets both events and people. This type of memory loss is more extensive than the forgetfulness that we normally experience. Dissociative amenesia, as it is called is the trademark of this illness as it can't be explained by physical or neurological condition. Dissociative Identity Disorder is an illness which makes the affected person 'switch' to another personality whenever he or she is experiencing stress and or severe anxiety. Experiences may include several different people taking inside your head, having their own name, own story and characteristics. They also have their own qualities as manifes ted in the voice, manner, gender and even physical qualities. Sybil indeed have all of these present, as she has sixteen different personalities, having different physical characteristics, attitudes and even gender, as she also had two male personalities of herself. Sybil's 'alternate self' is a mirror of what she feels inside. Her desires of being confident, self-assured and all that is positive that she wanted to experience as all these were "robbed" from her in her childhood days. Due to her traumatic experience in her mother's hands and her father's indifference to her situation made her grow up having so much pain, hatred and confusion in herself that instead of molding her into a stronger person, she tended into the "unfortunate" side - DID. In her growing up years, Sybil in some way also showed Reaction-Formation, a process by which we can disguise our true motives or desires when such would cause us guilt or shame if we really face up to them. The defense consists in strongly expressing the very

Tuesday, August 27, 2019

Term papers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Term papers - Essay Example Musical acculturation is mostly enabled by colonial or political domination along with the social unrest that follows. Musical acculturation has to do with that hybridization influence brought about by alien elements of music. This paper seeks to show the hybridizing influence of European musical elements on African American music. Despite the fact that West African music differed from one region to the other, all cultures within this region shared sufficient features that enabled them to constitute a heritage that was identifiable as African when they were trans-located to the New World (Jackson 25). From the accounts given by early traders and explorers, it has been deduced that music was a lifestyle of these West Africans. It was used to enhance rituals, worship, provide recreation, and as a means of communication. These cultures shared a characteristic feature in integrating music with dramatic elements and dance. When they were enslaved and stripped of their community and families, their rich stories, customs, traditions, and music remained with them and were passed the new generation. On arrival in the new world, they were designated as heathens and the clergymen of the time were compelled to convert the Africans to Christianity. This religious conversion acted as the first instance in which the Africans were exposed to European music with the singing of hymns and psalms (Jackson 25). They often gathered, on Sundays, to make music, sing, and dance. The first all the black worship churches were established in the 18th century with Reverend Allen Richard realizing the importance that music held for the people, publishing a hymnal for use by the Africans. These black churches provided the people with opportunities earlier denied to them, for instance the experimentation with religious music from set pieces to formal anthems and lowly spirituals

Monday, August 26, 2019

Hart's Thesis and MOMJ Perspective on Law Society Essay

Hart's Thesis and MOMJ Perspective on Law Society - Essay Example Hart (1994) further argues that because the society accepts the legal rule as the standards of judging, criticizing and even giving punishments when some members deviate, the legal rules are obligatory and all the members of the society must comply with their provisions. According to Hart, it is important for the societies to establish reflective attitudes based on common standards to ensure conformity with regard to the application of the law. In this context, Hart’s thesis that the validity of laws depend on the sources as opposed rather than its merits is significantly crucial since it can be used to solve the potential conflicts between successive norms and the concurrent rules that tend to affect various legal systems. Consequently this perspective considerably enhances the legal understanding of law making processes. Hart’s thesis is also based on the assumption that not every member of the society is expected to accept the stipulated rules as the only criteria of legal validity but rather most of the ordinary people do not often fully comprehend the legal structures as well as how to measure their validity(Hart, 1994). On the other hand, the myth of moral justice postulated by Rosenbaum suggests that the current legal system is not morally ideal because it is so formulaic and rigid that it is almost impossible to achieve just outcomes from it. In â€Å"the myth of moral justice,† Rosenbaum disagrees with Hart’s theses as well as the theories of legal positivism’s reasoning that the validity of the legal processes is always a function of the particular social systems that regulate the behavior of the members of the society. According to Rosenbaum (2004), not all of the legal cases in the courts can be simply addressed through monetary compensation and punishments as seen in most of the current legal systems. This is because sometimes the victims may only need restorative and spiritual remedies to help them achieve justic e. For example, victims of injustices should be given opportunity to express their feelings and get consolations or apologies from the parties that may have offended them. Instead most of the current legal systems are filled with moral complexities that often make it impossible to deliver justice to the members of the society. For instance most people continue to lie under the oath and this has resulted in the loss of faith and frustrations with our current justice and legal systems. Rosenbaum also challenges the contemporary training of layers particularly with regard to ethics. For example he argues from law schools to their places of career practice, lawyers are always filled with the concepts of unemotional evaluation of facts and details of cases with little regard to moral sense. Throughout the book, there are also a number of instances in which relatively simple cases ended with outcomes that are legally justified and yet are not making any moral sense. Some of the notable ca ses included the famous Nuremberg trials which ended in the acquittal of all the police officers who were charged with murder. Similarly, there are also a number of cases cited in the book where by an action that is morally sensible may not be legally acceptable for example it may be ethically

Sunday, August 25, 2019

Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 38

Ethics - Essay Example I had mixed feelings, since my expectations of the USA were not clearly defined. Nonetheless, I knew the years that lay ahead were going to be the most wonderful years of my life. The early days in America were memorable and life changing. Experiencing America in person was thrilling. This remains my best experience. The cultural diversity in America gave me a chance to meet new people from different parts of the world. I missed home, especially my family, and occasionally, I experienced loneliness. However, this had made me break away from my comfort zone and lead an independent life, adapting to a new culture. While in America, I received different treatment from different people. The level of politeness among students varied. Most students were polite to me; they offered to orientate me in my new school. However, a few were impolite. One of my worst experiences was when one student deliberately talked negatively about Koreans, to make me feel bad. This taught me that not all people are going to treat you in the same way. In addition, the level of politeness of a person depends on their personality. Therefore, this personality trait is not existent in every person, so I learnt to understand those who treated me in an impolite way. I experienced the aspect of equality in America in different measures. In terms of education, equal opportunities are provided to both native and international students. However, in few cases, international students had trouble securing jobs in America. However, equality in all aspects is highly upheld in America, as the constitution demands, and this is rarely breached. American culture portrays more openness than Korean culture, which is largely conservative. Here, there is less discrimination on grounds of gender and sex, and there is more freedom of expression. It is normal for expectant students to come to school, and students freely express

Saturday, August 24, 2019

The importance of having a strategic procurement plan Essay

The importance of having a strategic procurement plan - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that procurement planning as noted by Sanjay is a dynamic process that needs input from different groups of professionals. Therefore John recommends that strategic procurement and planning in an organization should be performed by a multidisciplinary team established particularly for the duty, with the involvement of various technical and management professional who is experienced in procurement and supply management of strategic health supplies. Where necessary, the procurement planning team might request expertise and advice from certain advisors.   The multidisciplinary team is established to make sure that the planning process is not interrupted. The responsibilities of the team are not merely limited to the planning of the products, rather it as well involves monitoring, evaluation, and implementation of the strategic procurement plan. The procurement of health products such as medicines in a healthcare organization requires full kno wledge of the supply system, the sister organizations and other institutions involved. To make sure that there is a continuous availability of products within the organization, the procurement planning team of the organization, has to formulate, coordinate, carry out and monitor the entire procurement process. The team should perform a quick situation evaluation of the supply system to establish possible problems and bottlenecks that could negatively impact the availability of products within the main organization and sister organizations. As explained by Sanjay medicines supply system is cyclic in its nature whereby each task is supported by the past task and leads systematically to the next. Supposing each task is carried out independently of one another instead of being an element of an integrated system, the result is increases in costs, frequent stock shortages and deterioration in the quality of patient care. A good example of this aspect can be viewed in the needs estimation process when there is accurate, well-written and regularly updated epidemiological accounts and information on the use of the product and purchases might become more accurate, efficient and timely.

Pythagorean triples Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Pythagorean triples - Essay Example The most popular example of which is the 3-4-5 triangle, the triple which, according to Knott (2009), was known to the Babylonians since way back 5,000 years and was possibly used as a basis in making true right angles in ancient building construction. Then again, the 3-4-5 triangle is just one of the infinitely many Pythagorean Triples, and mind you, there are various ways of generating such triples. One is, given two integers n and m, where n > m, then sides a, b and c are define as n2  - m2, 2nm and n2  + m2, respectively, following a simple proof (Bogomolny 2009): Taking for instance the triple 8-15-17, which is generated by taking n = 4 and m = 1, then a = n2  - m2 = 4 ­Ã‚ ­2 - 12 = 16 - 1 = 15; b = 2mn = 2(1)(4) = 8, and; c = n2  + m2 = 4 ­Ã‚ ­2 + 12 = 16 + 1 = 17. Another example is 7-24-25, which can be verified using n = 4 and m = 3. Such triples are examples of Primitive Pythagorean Triples, or those triples that are not multiples of another and are found using the n-m formula (Knott 2009). Other Pythagorean Triples can be found using a variety of methods as presented by Bogomolny (2009) and Knott (2009), some of which are: c) by Two-fractions method—choose any two fractions whose product is 2, add 2 to each fraction, then cross multiply, getting the two shorter sides of the triple: 4/2, 2/2 → 8/2, 6/2 → 16, 12 → 162 + 122 = 202, and; To sum it up, there are infinitely many Pythagorean Triples existing. But one thing is for sure, a variety of techniques are available that will serve useful in generating patterns among such triples. Hence, if you cannot list them all, be familiar of their patterns at least. Knott, R. (2009). Pythagorean Triangles and Triples. Retrieved November 20, 2009, from The University of Surrey, Mathematics Web site:

Friday, August 23, 2019

Summary of article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Summary of - Article Example A rather shortsighted tendency exists where clubs look at the contracts as an easy source of revenue while clubs also go into the contracts as a tactic for marketing communication. The objective from both parties ought to be building relationships, acquisition and development of resources and strategy for networking. But many corporates as well as clubs have continued to view the sponsorship contracts as short-term hence failing to strategically evaluate the kind of contracts they go into. Corporates in most cases have tendencies of hurrying into contracts with clubs without proper negotiations, hence failing develop and manage the relationships. There is therefore a need to proactively monitor the contracts on the side of sponsors especially, negotiate properly, enter the contracts for reasons more than just communication, make rational decisions on the same and ultimately enter into relationships that add value. With growth in value of sponsorship programs not being questionable organizations must think broadly and consider the contracts as strategy, networking and relationship building avenues. There is a need to leave the short-term perspective of the transactions and embrace a long-term value approach in signing the sponsorship

Thursday, August 22, 2019

Poetry and science enjoy equal success in expanding human knowledge Essay Example for Free

Poetry and science enjoy equal success in expanding human knowledge Essay Before answering whether both poetry and science enjoy equal success in expanding human knowledge, one must first understand what poetry and science are and what they do. Poetry is an artists way of abstractly conveying his or her ideas through writing so as to stimulate the emotional side of the readers. Science on the other hand, is an objective way of clearly stating facts so as to stimulate the formal or fact craving side of the readers. Poetry presents an object in order to convey a particular message or feeling, whilst science merely presents an object objectively and describes how it is, clearly, in every way possible. Therefore, it is clear that the purpose of these two approaches is quite different. Furthermore, the ways of knowing in poetry and science are somewhat different. Poetrys ways of knowing are mainly emotion and language, while sciences are mainly language and reason. However, although they have language in common, both of them utilize language in different ways and for different purposes. As is obvious from above, both approaches aim to expand two completely different parts of human knowledge. Poetry aims to expand the aesthetic while science the scientific. Therefore, they cannot be assessed on their ability to expand human knowledge based on the same criteria but rather, they should both be assessed based on individual criteria in their own specific areas of knowledge and then compared after being assessed. Assessing them based on the same criteria would much be like comparing a desert with a main course, which would be wrong since they both have different purposes and, although the dessert may not be good at achieving the purpose of the main dish, it could well be excellent at achieving the purposes of a dessert. Since poetry tries to touch the readers emotional side aesthetically it must be scrutinized as an art. The purpose of art is to aesthetically touch an emotion which all people supposedly have. Through techniques specific to each art, good artists are able to do this, and this in itself is an expansion of human knowledge in that it causes people to be aware of their emotions. Humans have to turn to poetry to interpret life for us, to console us, to sustain us. (Matthew Arnold, The Study of Poetry) The purpose of Shakespeares Macbeth is not to scientifically understand how ambition can conquer one, nor is it meant to be a historical recount of the real Macbeth. It is a poetic story which is written so as people can empathize with the main characters and view their own life in terms of conquering their faults and sustaining their good. Another purpose of poetry is to represent human nature. This can clearly be seen through any of Roberts Frosts poems such as Out, Out which explains, better than any scientific paper ever could, the ability of a child to care so much about his desire to work and help society, and the lack of care his family experiences when he dies. Poetry presents human characteristics, the human thought, the human inner self, all compact into one verse and it is so powerful because when read, one immediately connects with it, and it touches each persons emotions in a way. Also, it so vividly depicts the nature of humans that it is a powerful tool through which people can express themselves, and in which people can relate to. It expands our knowledge of human nature and the way humans behave and the power of emotions and their effect on us. In Shakespeares Macbeth when Lady Macbeth asks the evil spirits to unsex me [Lady Macbeth] here one feels the evil powers of ambition and its ability to overtake ones sane and rational thought. On the other hand sciences purpose is to clearly depict a situation or object. Science, in no way, should aim to touch the readers emotional side, but rather touch the readers rationality. Although some may argue that science does touch a readers side, it is not the main purpose of the writing, and is rather an effect of extreme love towards and passion for the subject. A scientific argument should not be ambiguous or differ from reader to reader, unlike poetry. There is no way for a scientific argument to be true to some people and false to others, for in science there is an absolute truth which the scientists are trying to attain. Although many may argue that poets are also aiming to achieve this absolute truth, it must be noted that each persons emotions are different and therefore there is no way to absolutely describe the way people think, react or behave. Biology, chemistry and physics have set laws and truths which, regardless of who or where you are, will be true. If the purp ose of poetry is, as we said, to depict human nature, then the purpose of science is to understand nature itself and how it works. When writing a piece the author must create a balance between ambiguity and precision and the language of a piece is directly dependant on the purpose of the piece. Poetry and science are completely opposite in the way that they try to balance ambiguity and precision. In poetry the ability to ambiguously use words is good since it allows one to think abstractly and allows different readers, with different mindsets, to interpret the piece in different ways. Therefore, in the case of poetry language, as a way of knowing, is created to be ambiguous so as to contribute to the knowledge and effect of the piece. On the other hand, in science ambiguity greatly impedes a work. It is not acceptable for a law or theory in science to be indirect and not addressing one specific point clearly.. Otherwise the law becomes obsolete, since if it is not understandable it has no purpose. There is no space in science for different interpretations of a law; the law has one purpose that it achieves and that purpose is set. It is not different for different people, or different nations, or different cultures. In the sense of multiple meanings, contrary to poetrys double entendres, scienctific writing cannot have any; the one meaning the author desires to portray must be directly stated so as to disallow ambiguity and interpretation. For example, water being comprised of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom is true independent if one is in the United States, Russia, or Australia. Also, it is true independent of ones age, race, background, nationality, religion, or any other factor which may change from person to person. However, poetry is quite the opposite. Poetry should be, and is, interpreted differently by different people. The meaning or truth behind poetry is fully dependant on all the factors listed above. An old person may have a completely different understanding of words in poems such as George Herberts The Pulley the double meaning of the word rest which can either mean the remainder or it can mean peace. The great difference between these two interpretations leaves the reader with the final choice to interpret the poem the way he/she wants and this is the intent of the poet. However, in science it is the intent of the scientist to clearly illustrate his/her point without any ambiguity as in science clarity is essential. In conclusion, it can be seen that poetry and science have completely different purposes and different means of attaining these purposes. Furthermore, each of these specific areas of knowledge means to expand different types of knowledge and pertain to different ways of knowing. However, one must realize that it is essential to have a balance between the scientific or factual knowledge, and the poetic/aesthetic knowledge or the emotional understanding of human nature. Therefore, in these terms science successfully expands its portion of human knowledge successfully expands its. Therefore, it can be concluded that each area of knowledge has equal success in expanding knowledge in its respective area. In science one tries to tell people, in such a way as to be understood by everyone, something that no one ever knew before. But in poetry its the exact opposite.(P A M Dirac) Do both the approaches suggested in the quotation enjoy equal success in expanding human knowledge?

Wednesday, August 21, 2019

Different techniques of spread spectrum

Different techniques of spread spectrum CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: The idea of this project is to study different techniques of spread spectrum. These techniques include the two processes of direct-sequence spread spectrum and frequency hopping spread spectrum. Both these techniques will be simulated in software called MATLAB. Also a brief mention will be there about the multiple access property of spread spectrum. This project deals with the implementation of spread spectrum using the techniques- direct sequence spread spectrum and frequency hopping spread spectrum. Spread spectrum is a new method of communication. It provides a jam-free network and prevents any kind on interference. It helps to provide immunity to channels by not allowing any kind of interference or disturbance. We will be discussing more about spread spectrum and its technique in the following chapters. The project has been divided into six chapters. The second chapter deals with spread spectrum. It starts of with the history of spread spectrum followed by a basic definition of spread spectrum. Certain characteristics of spread spectrum are discussed along with a mathematical explanation of advantage of spread spectrum over narrow band communication. It then describes the working of a spread spectrum and finally mentions how a spread spectrum can be demodulated. Chapter three describes different techniques of spread spectrum. There are four techniques of spread spectrum namely direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), chirp spread spectrum (CSSS) and time hopping spread spectrum (THSS). Each of these techniques is described, with a brief mention about its basic mechanism.A brief comparison is drawn between FHSS AND DHSS. A mathematical explanation is given for DSSS under the conditions of noise (jammer). Chapter four discusses different multiple accesses of spread spectrum. These are frequency domain multiple access (FDMA), time division multiple access(TDMA) and code division multiple access(CDMA). CDMA is dealt with in a more detail manner and is presented with a mathematical explanation. Chapter five presents a MATLAB simulation of direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) and Code division multiple access (CDMA). It discusses how a signal when multiplied with a pseudo random noise and put on a frequency wave gets spread. This technique is called direct sequence spread spectrum. Also this chapter presents the MATLAB simulation of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum where four randomly carrier frequency waves are generated to form a spread spectrum and multiplied with pseudo random generator to determine the frequencies where the information has to be hopped. The information is sent in the form of a BPSK modulated signal. Also a MATLAB simulation on CDMA is presented .It basically shows how CDMA works. Three stations are taken and how they send codes through a single channel by using the property the CDMA. Finally, chapter six winds up the project with the conclusion from each chapter. It mentions in short what has been realized from this project. CHAPTER 2 SPREAD SPECTRUM 2.1 HISTORY OF SPREAD SPECTRUM This chapter talks about spread spectrum. It begins with a brief history behind spread spectrum. It also mentions about the various fields where spread spectrum is being effectively used. Certain characteristics of spread spectrum are also discussed.A basic definition of spread spectrum is discussed in this chapter which basically explains what actually spread spectrum and why is preferred over conventional wireless communication. A brief mechanism of how spread spectrum works is discussed. It also mentions the mathematical reason behind why a spread signal is an effective way to communicate. A comparison is drawn between spread spectrum transmission and fixed frequency transmission. Finally a demodulation technique is discussed mentioning about how demodulation can be achieved. Spread spectrum has become a new commercial communication technique over the past 8-9 years. However the first intentional use of Spread Spectrum came during the period of 1921-1930 by Armstrong. He had used wideband Frequency Modulation. The real use for Spread Spectrum how ever came in World War II. Both the allies and the Axis powers experimented with simple Spread Spectrum systems. The first publically patent on Spread Spectrum came from Hedy Lamarr, the Hollywood movie actress, and George Antheil, an avant gard composer. Lamarr had mentioned to Antheil about her idea for a Secret Communications System that could guide torpedoes to their target without being intercepted by the enemy. This could be done by sending messages between transmitter and receiver over multiple radio frequencies in a varied random pattern. The message would be transmitted at such a high rate that no one would be able to decode it. They sent their invention to National Inventors Council. Instead of developing the patent commercially, they gave it away to the government for the war effort. As a result of which the commercial use of Spread spectrum came many years later [1, 3, 19]. Spread Spectrum was first used for commercial purposes in the 1980s when Equatorial Communications of Mountain View used Direct Sequence for multiple access communications over synchronous satellite transponders [1]. Today, spread spectrum is being used to provide communications in a variety of commercial applications, including mobile communications and interoffice wireless communications. In the coming years hardly anyone will prevent themselves from being involved in one way or the other with spread spectrum communications as it will become an integral part of the communication world. [1, 4]. 2.2 DEFINITION OF SPREAD SPECTRUM Spread-spectrum is a technique by which electromagnetic energy produced over a particular bandwidth is spread in the frequency domain on purpose. Spread spectrum signals are used for transmission of digital information which are characterized by the fact that their bandwidth W is much greater than the information rate R in bits/sec. Hence the bandwidth expansion factor is always greater than unity. This results to provide a signal with a wider bandwidth and a lower power density. These techniques are used for a variety of reasons which include the establishment of secure communications, increasing resistance to natural interference and to limit the power flux density on satellite downlinks. Narrow band signal and spread spectrum use the same amount of power to transmit the same data. However the power density of the spread spectrum is lower as compared to narrow band and it is this property that makes spread spectrum achieve secure and jam free communication. Spread spectrum is a type of wireless communication in which the frequency of the transmitted signal is intentionally varied and changed to achieve a higher bandwidth. This results to provide a much greater bandwidth than that of the signal if its frequency was not altered [2, 5]. A spread spectrum should full fill the following requirements: 1) The message signal should undergo two modulations that produce the wideband spectrum having bandwidth much in excess of the minimum bandwidth needed to send the message. 2) The spreading ,that is the second modulation is caused by means of a spreading signal 3) The receiver should recover the message by the method of de-spreading the signal that is received by using the same spreading signal [23]. Spread spectrum is preferred over conventional wireless communication for many reasons; however there are at least a couple of problems associated with conventional wireless communication. First, a signal whose frequency is constant and not changing is subject to interference. This condition occurs when another signal is sent on, or very near to the frequency of the desired signal. Interference can be accidental (as in the case of amateur-radio communications) or it can be deliberate like during war time. Second, a constant-frequency signal is very easy to intercept or lock and reveal the information it is carrying and hence is not well preferred to applications where the information must remain confidential between the transmitter and receiver. [2]. To minimize troubles and to maintain the confidentiality of the information, transmitted signals frequency can be deliberately varied and changed over the large segment of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum. This variation is done by using a specific and complicated mathematical function. This function is the most important part of the spread spectrum for maintaining the confidentiality. For intercepting the signal, the receiver must be tuned to frequencies that vary exactly to this function. The receiver must have the knowledge of the frequency-versus-time function employed by the transmitter, and must also be provided with the information about the starting-time point of the function. If someone wants to hack or intercept the spread-spectrum signal, that person must possess a transmitter that contains the information about the function and its starting-time point. The spread-spectrum function hence must be well protected for confidential information communication and it this feature of spread spectrum that helps maintaining the secrecy of information. If this function comes in the wrong hands, it can lead to the invasion of secrecy of the information [2]. 2.3 HOW SPREAD SPECTRUM WORKS Spread Spectrum uses wide band which is a noise-like signals and hence are hard to detect. These signals are also hard to lock on to or be tracked by any intruder. Spread signals are made in such a manner that their bandwidth is larger than the information they are transmitting to give them a noise like appearance, hence protecting the information it is carrying and maintain its secrecy and confidentiality [4]. Spread Spectrum signals use fast codes that have a high data rate. These codes are called Pseudo Random or Pseudo Noise codes. These are called Pseudo for the reason being that they are not real Gaussian noise [4]. Spread Spectrum transmitters possess similar transmits power levels to that of narrow band transmitters. Spread Spectrum signals are so wide hence they transmit at a much lower spectral power density which is measured in Watts per Hertz as compared to narrowband transmitters. This characteristic (lower spectral power density)gives spread signals a huge advantage in digital communication and it is this capability that is responsible for the rapid use of Spread Spectrum today [4]. The numerical advantage of wider bandwidth is obtained from the Claude Shannons equation describing channel capacity [4]. (2.1) Where; C=channel capacity of the signal, B=Bandwidth of the signal, S=signal power, and N=noise power. = (2.2) On Applying the MacLaurin series development for (2.3) is usually low for spread-spectrum applications. Assuming a noise level such that

Tuesday, August 20, 2019

Healthcare Information Management

Healthcare Information Management HEALTHCARE INFORMATION MANAGEMENT Healthcare Management of Information Systems Availability of information about the patient is of utmost importance in the medical profession. In order for a doctor to provide the patient with the best possible care, it is of utmost importance that, all the information past as well as present, about the patient is available to him. The American college of surgeons recognized the importance of record keeping back in 1928, when the Association of Recode Librarians of North America was established to maintain the high standards of medical records in hospital and other related institutions (AHIMA History, 2008). From then onwards, the quality record keeping and its security has turned into a proper science. Healthcare management of information systems is defined as follows. It â€Å"is the study of the principles and practices of acquiring, analyzing, and protecting digital and traditional medical information vital to providing quality patient care.† (What is health information management, 200). Healthcare information management (HIM) professionals are people who have an increasingly critical role to play in the health care system. As the age of information progresses, HIM professionals play important roles as sort of a bridge between the clinical and the administrative departments. It is the role of the HIM professionals to put a network or a system in place which allows organization of administrative as well as patient related information in a manner which allows quick access to accurate patient related data in ensured. The expertise of HIM professionals is not just used by the hospitals. â€Å"Ambulatory care facilities, managed care facilities, Private clinics, pharmaceutical industry, insurance companies, even universities† use the organizational expertise of HIM professionals. (Partner in the Delivery of Quality Healthcare, 2008) Association of healthcare management systems and its professions not only have the job of ensuring quality record keeping, but looking the future, the association is pushing the initiative of ensuring fully electronic storage of information. Electronic storage will not only streamline storage, but it also enables an easy access of information as required. Security is paramount. The HIM professionals job is to ensure that the information channels are safe and secure and the setup they provide secure and safe. In order to ensure that the professionals remain up to far with the rapidly changing technologies and meet the high standards demanded by consumers, the AHIMA certifies HIM professionals in their field of expertise. These include â€Å"Coding specialists, Registered Health information Administrator, Registered health information technician, and certified personal in health care privacy and security† (Experts in Health Information Management, 2008). H.I.M aims to interlink comprehensive patient information across the country and to ensure its accessibility in real-time to accomplish on time health care delivery. System interoperability and data interchange is the need of our times. It is the task of HIM professionals to ensure the creation of data organization, storage and extraction systems in health and related institutions with the view of providing services across the country(Advocate for Health Policy, 2008). The regulatory body of HIM, the AHIMA has undertaken the task to â€Å"advance the role of HIM in informing clinical practice, develop standards to improve data quality and facilitate information exchange, and help healthcare organizations migrate to the electronic health record (EHR).† (Advocate for Health Policy, 2008). The HIM profession is heavily dependent on information technology or IT. The professionals in some departments have to be computer networking experts as well. These professionals not only have sound knowledge about the ins and outs of the health care system, but also are learned in their fields of specialty, like administration, networking, coding expert etc. The field of HIM is a rapidly changing and dynamic field. The professionals have to keep up with the dynamics of health care environment and keep updating themselves in terms of knowledge and skills. The professionals have to take refresher courses, annual certifications and keep themselves at the edge by using textbooks, journals, and industry dynamics and updates. The AHIMA provides online communities and libraries for the professionals to network, interact and assist each other in many ways. An interesting thing one discovers at the AMIHA website is its history. We find out that the concept of health care information management is not new. In 1928 the American college of Surgeons place the ground work for the HIM by organizing a record keeping establishment to ensure that the patient records were complete and of high quality. This establishment has had a few transformations. It changed its names quite a few times. In 1938, the establishment was referred to as the American association of medical record librarians (AAMRL). In this year, it created rules and certain standards for record keeping. In the 70s its name changed to American Medical record association and the professionals were notably more involved in the hospitals, health care facilities, and long term care institutions. Later called In the American healthcare information management association (AHIMA) went through restructuring process. The new roles of the association are to manage data not only from hospitals but health information and clinical data comprising the whole spectrum of health care. (AHIMA History, 2008) An interesting thing to note about the site for AHIMA is that, apart from demonstrating that it is a regulatory body for HIM professionals, it also provides information educational Associate and Baccalaureate HIM programs. This is a good means for interested professionals to explore their options and think about the opportunities in the future. The site also provides information about scholarships and grants. (Faculty and Dean Resources, 2008). The site has separate sections on career opportunities in the HIM profession. Along with guidance and direction on how certify ones self in HIM programs, it provides the opportunity for professionals to post resume, look at available jobs in the field, or search for jobs of their choice (Career Assist, 2008). It also provides reviews and statistics of the HIM work force data, like salaries, and other demographics of the jobs available. An interested professional can study the information before making a choice of profession. (Career opportunities in health information management, 2008) Certification is an important pillar in the healthcare profession. For HIM professionals to be valued properly, they must be certified. The AHIMA website allows a direct link to the commission on Accreditation for health informatics and information Management Education. This is an independent body that certifies institutions for degree granting programs in health informatics and information management. Knowing which institutions are accredited ensures that interested professionals only approach certified institutions for their future education. (Welcome to CAHIIM, 2008) An interesting thing to note was the AHIMA diversity management program. According to the mission statement, â€Å"The AHIMA Diversity Task Force will facilitate the Associations members ability to celebrate and promote diversity within the Association through education, mentoring, recognition, leadership and other programs.† DIVERSITY TASK FORCE. This task force ensures differences and diversity in points of view. The promotion of diversity enables maximum effectiveness and success of the institution. REFERENCES: AHIMA History, (2008). AHIMA. Retrieved February 24, 2008, from http://www.ahima.org/about/history.asp What is health information management (2007). Health information careers.com. Retrieved February 24, 2008, from http://himcareers.ahima.org/whatishim1.html Partner in the Delivery of Quality Healthcare (2008). AHIMA. Retrieved February 24, 2008, from http://www.ahima.org/about/about.asp Experts in Health Information Management ( 2008). AHIMA. Retrieved February 24, 2008, from http://www.ahima.org/about/about.asp Advocate for Health Policy (2008). AHIMA. Retrieved February 24, 2008, from http://www.ahima.org/about/about.asp Career opportunities in health information management (2008). AHIMA. Retrieved February 24, 2008, from http://www.ahima.org/careers/career_counseling.asp Career Assist (2008). AHIMA. Retrieved February 24, 2008, from http://careerassist.ahima.org/home/index.cfm?site_id=681 Welcome to CAHIIM (2008). CAHIIM. Retrieved February 24, 2008, from http://www.cahiim.org/ Faculty and Dean Resources, (2008). AHIMA. Retrieved February 24, 2008, from http://www.ahima.org/academics/

Monday, August 19, 2019

Darkness and Death in Do Not Go Gentle Into That Good Night :: Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night

Themes of Darkness and Death in â€Å"Do Not Go Gentle Into That Good Night†Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One of the forms of analysis and criticism that is best used with many works is the analysis of archetypal images.   Many words and objects are images that have much deeper meanings and values than you, as a reader, take at face value.   Many of the words and sentences in Dylan Thomas’ â€Å"Do Not Go Gentle Into That Good Night† give away the poems underlying theme of darkness and death.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One of the archetypal images Thomas uses is that of the wise old man.   â€Å"Though wise men at their end know dark is right, because their words forked no lighting they do not go gentle into that good night.†Ã‚   This passage speaks of wise men that fail.   The archetypal definition of the wise man is one who possesses the qualities of insight, wisdom, cleverness, a spiritual principle, and much more.   But aside from the fact that these men are wise, their words still mean nothing.   This passage gives the reader an unmistakable image of darkness in the lives of even those who are wise.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A second image that portrays this theme is the fourth stanza of the poem.   â€Å"Wild men who caught and sang the sun in flight, and learn, too late, they grieved it on its way, do not go gentle into that good night.†Ã‚   Here the image of the sun represents the passing of life.   And the men, who were too late in catching the sun and grieved it on its way, are giving us the image that the sun is setting.   Or, as it could be interpreted, the sun for that day is dying.   Here again we have a passage that is giving us a clear image of darkness.   And here, also, we see Thomas referring to death.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One of the strongest, if not the strongest, images of darkness and death is shown in the last two lines of the poem.   â€Å"Do not go gentle into that good night.   Rage, rage against the dying of the light.†Ã‚   The death of the light here shows us blackness: the ultimate darkness.

Sunday, August 18, 2019

Meditation :: essays research papers

Webster's dictionary defines meditation as "to reflect on; ponder, to engage in contemplation," which it really is, although, many people believe that meditation is a means of developing a more spiritual or religious life. Meditation does not necessarily have to be religious. Many people just meditate to relax or organize their thoughts. Meditation is a very broad subject since there are many ways in which to perform meditation. Not only are there many ways but, there are also many different religions associated with meditation. Not only is meditation good for the soul but, it is also good for the mind. I myself have experimented with meditation and have found it to be very relaxing and at the same time stimulating. One way to perform meditation is to first find a comfortable place to sit or lie down. Then you must have a precise, intense focus on one object. Follow and control your breath and note all of your body sensations or track the sequence of your thoughts. Second, be allowing to any thoughts that may enter your head. Be spacious and open- hearted. This is excellent for the mind. Another form that is good for the body is body relaxation. First lie on your back on the floor, a supportive bed or a couch. Close your eyes and rest for a moment. Wait for a feeling of readiness. When you are ready to begin, tighten all the muscles that you can, but never tighten them to the point of discomfort. Hold this for thirty seconds. Next pay close attention to the sensation you feel and remember it. Then let all your muscles go and allow them to relax. Compare the feeling that you are feeling to the one that you had just felt minutes ago. After a few minutes repeat this but, allow your muscles to relax for a longer amount of time. Yoga, another form of meditation, teaches an eightfold path beginning with the acquisition of pure moral attitudes, proceeding through practices of breath control and postures designed to allow a person to concentrate without having his or her mind distracted by outside forces. By concentrating on progressively more abstract concepts the person achieves higher and higher meditative states, culminating in a contentless trance that constitutes liberation. Yogis, people that perform yoga, in more advanced stages of this process are said to be gifted with remarkable powers , such as special capacities for sight, an ability to levitate and to project their minds into other bodies, and so on. Religion is a major factor in meditation.

Shakespeares As You Like It - The Romantic Love of Silvius and Phebe :: Shakespeare As You Like It Essays

As You Like It:   The Romantic Love of Silvius and Phebe    There are several types of love depicted in Shakespeare's As You Like It.   One variety of love portrayed in this comedy is romantic love, the romantic literary ideal which became popular in the Middle Ages. According to the courtly love tradition a lover worships his lady and serves her, suffers all sorts of indignities for her sake, and thinks only of her. He must be loyal to her for life, no matter how badly she treats him, or how much he suffers for unrequited love. A true lover never ceases to adore his lady, and when he speaks of her he only uses poetic language and style. These conventions of courtly love are clearly exemplified in As You Like It in the romantic attachment of Silvius and Phebe. When Rosalind, Celia and Touchstone arrive in the forest of Arden they meet Silvius and Corin, an old shepherd, who are engaged in a conversation about love. Corin is advising his friend on how to treat the woman he loves. However, Silvius doubts the old shepherd's authority in such matters, for although Corin admits having been drawn into acts of madness for the sake of love during his youth, he cannot recall any of them. Silvius clearly manifests that if Corin has forgotten even the most insignificant detail of the actions love made him run into, then he has never been truly in love. Even more, Silvius also explains that a true lover never ceases to adore his lady in speech, even if this moves his listener to discomfort, and further explains that sincere love may drive a lover to interrupt a conversation out of passion. To prove this last point, Silvius suddenly interrupts his speech passionately crying the name of Phebe, his beloved, several times. Silvius reflects the behavior of the courtly lover, who is capable of the most foolish actions for the sake of his beloved, and who suffers the pangs of unrequited love and the abrupt separation from his lady. His only concern is love and, although he is uneducated, his language is lofty, poetic, and artificial when he speaks in praise of Phebe. Indeed, both Phebe and Silvius speak in elaborate verse in order to comply with the courtly love conventions. In their courtship, Silvius praises her virtues and begs for the slightest sign of affection, and Phebe scorns and rejects him all along.

Saturday, August 17, 2019

Major Challenges Before Indian Economy Essay

This report  has been an honest and dedicated attempt to make the analysis on marketing material as authentic as it could. And I earnestly hope that it provides useful and workable information and knowledge to any person reading it. During this period, I had the pleasure of working closely with accomplished organization people who shared with me their experience and helped me in completion of my research. I express my sincere thanks to my project guide Mr. Pranav Nagpurkar Lastly I am grateful to my parents who been my mentors and motivators. I am also thankful to all my batch mates who have been directly or indirectly involved in successful completion of this project. Indian economy is the tenth largest economy in the world by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power. India is one of the G-20 major economies and member of BRICS. According to IMF India ranked 134th by nominal GDP on the basis of per capita income in 2012. Its GDP is about $1. 824 trillion and per capita income is about $1491. Its GDP contribution by sector wise is agriculture 17. %, industry 26. 4% and services 56. 4% in 2011. Its population is about 1. 2 billion and labour force is 498. 4 million in 2012. Labour force by occupation: agriculture 52%, industry 14% and services 34%. Unemployement rate in India is 9. 9%. Its investment is about 30% of GDP. Revenue of India is $171. 5 billion and expenditure over $281 billion. It has deficit budget of 5. 6% of the GDP. Main industries are textiles, chemicals, food processing, steel, transportation eq uipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery, software, and pharmaceuticals. Its export is about 309. 1 billion and import is about 500. 3 billion. The independence-era Indian economy (from 1947 to 1991) was based on a mixed economy combining features of capitalism and socialism, resulting in an inward-looking, interventionist policies and import-substituting economy that failed to take advantage of the post-war expansion of trade. This model contributed to widespread inefficiencies and corruption, and the failings of this system were due largely to its poor implementation. In 1991, India adopted liberal and free-market oriented principles and liberalized its economy to international trade under the guidance of Manmohan Singh, who then was the Finance Minister of India under the leadership of P. V. Narasimha Rao the then Prime Minister who eliminated License Raj a pre- and post-British Era mechanism of strict government control on setting up new industry. By 2008, India had established itself as one of the world’s fastest growing economies. Growth significantly slowed to 6. % in 2008–09, but subsequently recovered to 7. 4% in 2009–10, while the fiscal deficit rose from 5. 9% to a high 6. 5% during the same period. India’s current account deficit urged to 4. 1% of GDP during Q2 FY11 against 3. 2% the previous quarter. India’s public debt stood at 68. 05% of GDP which is highest among the emerging economies. However, inflation remains stubbornly high with 7. 55% in August 2012, the highest amotrade (counting exports and imports) stands at $ 606. 7 billion and is currently the 9th largest in the world. During 2011–12, India’s foreign trade grew by an impressive 30. 6% to reach $ 792. 3 billion (Exports-38. 33% & Imports-61. 67%). India has the world’s third largest road network, covering more than 4. 3 million kilometers and carrying 60% of freight and 87% of passenger traffic. Indian Railways is the fourth largest rail network in the world, with a track length of 114,500 kilometers. India has 13 major ports, handling a cargo volume of 850 million tonnes in 2010. India has a national teledensity rate of 74. 15% with 926. 3 million telephone subscribers, two-thirds of them in urban areas. But Internet use is rare, with around 13. 3 million broadband lines in India in December 2011. However, this is growing and is expected to boom following the expansion of 3G. * India’s current account deficit- The deficit has increased to a record 5. 6 percent of GDP in 2011-12, far above what the Reserve Bank of India considers to be a sustainable level, namely 2. 5 per cent of GDP. The key reason for the large current account deficit is the trade deficit increasing due to India’s relatively poor competitiveness and high dependence on oil and gold imports, which alone account for virtually half of total imports. Boosting merchandise exports through greater diversification across destinations and products are essential to bridge the trade deficit but this cannot be achieved without boosting labour productivity and enhancing transportation infrastructure, especially ports. With regards to gold, dematerialization, and introduction of inflation linked bonds would help reduce its physical imports of gold. Meanwhile, for oil, achieving greater energy efficiency, aligning domestic oil prices to international ones are a key or to find out different alternative/ substitute for it. * Qualitative and quantitative fiscal consolidation: Together with the current account deficit, the stubbornly high fiscal deficit (5. 8 percent of GDP in 2011-12) makes the Indian economy more vulnerable to shocks than most emerging markets. India’s twin deficits have adversely affected macro stability by pushing up inflation, undermining growth and leaving limited room for monetary accommodation. India’s fiscal policy has been too loose for too long. The government must focus on quality spending by channeling resources towards infrastructure and human capital investments while reducing unproductive spending, particularly on food, fertilizer and fuel subsidies. Furthermore, the government must implement revenue enhancing reforms by making the tax system more efficient and improving compliance. * Lowering high and sticky inflation- India’s persistently high inflation is fallout of myriad factors that are both cyclical and structural in nature. These include supply side bottlenecks, very high reliance on imported energy and lax fiscal policy. While a loose fiscal policy has boosted aggregate demand, particularly across rural areas, an enabling environment to enhance supply response is missing, thus aggravating inflation pressures. Containing inflation near the RBI’s comfort zone of 4 to 5 percent is crucial to facilitate sustainable growth. * Rebalancing the growth mix in favor of investment: India’s GDP growth is mainly consumption driven in good part due to consumption subsidies. Eliminating such subsidies will, thus, actually have three positive outcomes: reducing the fiscal deficit as well as excessive consumption which should also help reignite a virtuous savings investment cycle. In fact, since the global financial crisis of 2008-09, India’s savings rate has declined (to near 29 percent from a peak of 37 percent in 2009) amid high inflation and fiscal slippages. Given that India’s investment upturn during the golden years between 2004-2008 was largely financed by domestic savings, a revival in India’s domestic savings is critical for aiding a sustainable upturn in investment. In this regard, the Indian government needs to improve further on reforms execution and policy clarity so as to underpin foreign investor confidence. * Manufacturing sector- Being a primarily services driven economy, the share of manufacturing has been stagnant at a mere 16 percent of total GDP. India’s Asian peers, such as China, South Korea and Taiwan, have immensely benefited from a strong manufacturing sector, which enables greater employment creation, attracts higher and stable foreign direct investment and bolsters infrastructure development. However, bottlenecks in land acquisition, archaic labor laws, poor physical infrastructure, less favorable tax rules and tight regulations deter manufacturing sector growth in India. Reassuringly, the Indian government has approved a national manufacturing policy aimed to increase the manufacturing’s share in GDP from the current 16 to 22 percent in a decade and in turn create millions of jobs and add capacity to sustain the pace of economic growth. That said, effective implementation of such policy drive will clearly prove difficult given past records. Population- India’s population is about 1. 2 billion in 2012 which is a major challenge for the economy of India. For the developing countries like India, population explosion is a curse and is damaging to the development of the country and it’s society. The developing countries already facing a lack in their resources, and with the rapidly increasing population, the resources available per person are reduced further, leading to increased poverty, lack of food, malnutrition, and other large population-related problems. The literal meaning of population is â€Å"the whole number of people or inhabitants in a country or region† , and the literal meaning of population explosion is â€Å"a pyramiding of numbers of a biological population†. As the number of people in a pyramid increases, so do the problems related to the increased population. The main factors affecting the population change are the birth rate, death rate and migration. The birth rate is the ratio between births and individuals in a specified population and time. The death rate is the ratio between the number of deaths and individuals in a specified population and time. Migration is the number of people moving in (immigration) or out (emigration) of a country, place or locality. Immigration from the neighboring countries of Bangladesh and Nepal is also one of the causes of increasing population in India. The Population density (people per sq. km) in India was last reported at 411. 89 in 2010, according to a World Bank report published in 2012 which is very high. Measures to overcome from it. For limiting the population increase and we have to spend money on controlling the birth rate. Some of the programs have been successful, and the rate of increase has also reduced, but has still to reach the sustainable rate. The major factors affecting the population increase of India are the rapidly increasing birth rate and decreasing death rates. We can follow strict birth control measures like China to decrease the birth rate, but we cannot go and decrease our technological advancements to decrease the death rate. Thus, our main emphasis falls on decreasing the birth rate. Several government-funded agencies like the Family Planning Association of India spend hundreds of thousands of dollars on promoting family planning. These organizations aim to promote family planning as a basic human right and the norm of a two-child family on a voluntary basis, to achieve a balance between the population size and resources, to prepare young people for responsible attitudes in human sexuality, and to provide education and services to all. The family planning methods provided by the family planning program are vasectomy, tubectomy, IUD, conventional contraceptives(that is condoms, diaphragms, jelly/cream tubes, foam tables) and oral pills. In addition, induced abortion is available, free of charge, in institutions recognized by the government for this purpose. However, the success of the family planning program in India depends on several factors like literacy, religion and the region where the couple live. * Poverty- It is a situation in which a person is unable to get minimum basic necessities of life, i. e.. food, clothing and shelter for his or her living. In economic terms they are called poverty ridden and are people living below poverty line (BPL). MASS POVERTY: When a large section of the people in an economy is deprived of the basic necessities, that economy is said to be in mass poverty. Since it is the responsibility of the state to remove poverty, it has to take certain steps. -Developing an appropriate mechanism to identify the poverty – ridden people. -Estimate the total number of poverty-ridden persons with the help of that mechanism. In the first approach, expenditure incurred by a family on various items is used. In the second, the income earned by a family is used.

Friday, August 16, 2019

Contrastive Linguistics Essay

The Language of the Stock Exchange – A Contrastive Analysis of the Lexis V clanku je podana analiza jezika borze s stalisca slovensko-angleske protistave. Izrazje (samostalniske zveze) obeh jezikov smo protistavili tako v strukturnem kot v semanticnem smislu, pri cemer se je razkrilo vec protistavnih znacilnosti, med drugim razlicni nacini ubeseditve istega pojma, terminoloske praznine in lazni prijatelji, slovensko borzno terminologijo pa zaznamujejo tudi angleske tujke. The article analyzes the language of the stock exchange from a Slovene-English contrastive viewpoint. The specialized lexis of the two languages was juxtaposed as to the structural and semantic differences of their respective terms and expressions (nominal phrases), revealing such contrastive phenomena as different conceptualizations, terminological gaps and false friends, while the Slovene stock exchange terminology is also characterized by English foreignisms. 1. Introduction James characterizes contrastive analysis (CA) as a hybrid linguistic discipline (1989: 4), since it is neither particularist nor generalist and is interested both in the immanent genius of a language and in the ways in which one language compares to other languages. CA does not strive to classify languages and is interested both in the differences and similarities between them. Having had strictly pedagogical implications at first, the theoretical foundations of CA were initially laid down by Robert Lado in his Linguistics Across Cultures (1957). Lado supported the conviction that if learners of a foreign language (L2) were made aware of the ways in which their mother tongue (L1) and L2 differed, this would facilitate foreign language learning. He went even further by claiming that the elements of L2 that are similar to the learners’ L1 will prove simple to learn, with those that are different being difficult. Lado was the first to suggest a systematic set of technical procedures for the contrastive study of languages; this included descriptions of languages and their comparisons as well as predictions of L2 learning difficulties. In its most ambitious phrasing, the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis claimed to be able to predict all learners’ errors committed in using an L2. However, empirical studies conducted during the 1970s could not sustain this claim, making it clear that CA could only predict certain problematic areas for learners and some of the errors they are bound to make in their versions of L2 (James 1989: 145; my italics). All comparisons work on the basis of the assumption that the entities to be compared have certain things in common, and that any differences between them can be laid 154 Slovenski jezik – Slovene Linguistic Studies 7 (2009) against this common background. A CA thus always involves a common linguistic platform of reference, against which contrastive deviations are stated. This common platform is termed tertium comparationis (TC). Depending on the adopted TC, the same aspects of language may turn out be similar or different (Krzeszowski 1990: 16). In syntactic and lexical contrastive studies, the TC is often taken to be formal or semantic correspondence (ibid. ), chiefly in combination. Contrastive linguistics is not a unified field of study. The focus may be on general or on language specific features. The study may be theoretical (theoretical CA), without any immediate application, or it may be applied (applied CA), i. e. carried out for a specific purpose (Fisiak 1981: 2–3). Further, Gabrovsek (2005: 75–6) points out that contrastive work can be done at the levels of: phonology, graphology, lexicology, grammar, and textology. This is why any contrastive work must necessarily be limited in scope and thus always represent but a fragment of the overall contrastive landscape of a given pair of languages. Contrastive lexicology is the contrastive study of the vocabularies of two (or more) languages. It concerns itself with the transposition of lexical items from L1 to L2 and vice-versa, facing such difficulties as culture-bound vocabulary, interlingual mismatches, lexical gaps, etc (ibid.: 62–194). Equivalence between lexical items in two languages can be complete (trgovalni dan—trading day), partial (organizirani trg—regulated market), or nil (TUVL; insider). There are two possible scenarios in transposing such problematic lexical units: either the L2 equivalent is completely unknown to us (what, for example, is narocilo z razponom in odstranitvijo neizvrsene kolicine in English), which might lead to considerable confusion or even a communication breakdown, or we are uncertain as to the correct collocate (is SLO organizator trga EN market organizer or market operator?), which may make our L2 unidiomatic, but does not impede successful communication. Depending on the pattern and environment it appears in, a lexical item will typically benefit from additional semantic shading imposed by the surrounding lexical elements (semantic tailoring), and often consequently receive different counterparts in L2. Note the pairs svezenj—bundle, avkcija—auction, majhen—small, but (in a stock exchange context) svezenj—block (trade), prekinitvena avkcija—volatility interruption, mali vlagatelj—retail investor. The collocator and the base, even if lexically predictable in L2, may appear in the opposite order in the two languages (zascita vlagateljev—investor protection) or be joined by a different preposition (trgovati z obveznicami—trade in bonds). Another collocation-related problem, interlingually, is false friends: (borzna) kotacija ? (market) quotation. Lexicological CA also deals with divergent polysemy (vzdrzevalec likvidnosti—liquidity provider or market maker). This article focuses on lexical contrastive studies and chooses as its TC the English and Slovene lexis of the language of the stock exchange, juggling between formal and semantic equivalence of the terms and expressions in the two languages. Taking the Slovene-English contrastive viewpoint, we focused on nominal phrases (NPs), which have been examined as to the types of (non-)correspondence, on the structural as well as semantic level. The aim of this article has not been a discussion of terminology as such; terminology is here solely the object of contrastive lexicology, which lies at the core of this paper. B. Bozinovski, The Language of the Stock Exchange †¦ 155 As to the structural aspect, a divergence had been expected of the following kind: SLO simple NP complex NP EN simple NP complex NP complex NP simple NP On the semantic level, an occasional discrepancy had been anticipated between the meaning of a particular NP in isolation and that in a particular context (in different word combinations, most notably collocations), semantic tailoring being a feature of not only LGP (language for general purposes) but also LSP (language for special purposes). We had thus expected NPs to have different translation equivalents in different environments. English being the lingua franca of the financial world, we had also expected to find the English terms to be of a much more specialized nature than their Slovene counterparts. 2. Materials and methods The present CA entailed a lexicological comparison of pairs of (original) Slovene and (translated) English texts used in the regular operations of the Ljubljana Stock Exchange Inc. (LJSE). In juxtaposing texts with the same TC—the common platform for comparison was stock exchange terminology—pairs of lexemes (terms and expressions) relevant to our discussion were singled out and compared as to their structural and semantic properties. Given that we dealt with an LSP, our primary concern was with NPs, which constitute the main part of any LSP. The analysis was based on the thus-compiled database of over 1,000 pairs of headwords, of which only a selection appears in this article. 3. Analysis 3. 1. SLO: simple NP > avkcija CVS delnica delnicar dividenda glavnica indeks izdaja nalozba narocilo obveznica posel EN: simple NP auction NAV share shareholder dividend principal index issue investment order bond trade 156 Slovenski jezik – Slovene Linguistic Studies 7 (2009) 3. 1. SLO: simple NP > promet sklad svezenj trg EN: simple NP (continued) turnover fund block market The logical English equivalents for promet, posel and izdaja in general language or in isolation would be, for example, traffic, business and betrayal, with bond, auction and share being translated into Slovene as vez, drazba and delez, but in a stock exchange context the respective equivalents are LSP specific and uncontroversial. Svezenj and trg prove more problematic. The former can either be translated as block (of securities) or as block trade, since it can refer to a particular quantity of securities or to a trade executed in that particular quantity of securities—both svezenj in Slovene. Trg can either be rendered as single-word market or compound order book, depending on the context. In the case of the securities market in general, trg is equivalent to the EN market, but in combination with the trading platform and orders placed in the trading system, trg will normally be order book (narocila na trgu—orders sitting in the order book). SLO avkcija and dividenda are LSP terms of an international character, having been adopted from English (which their English counterparts clearly show), while the others are Slovene words. While avkcija, trg, izdaja, and narocilo are polysemous words of widespread use in Slovene LGP and only obtain specialized meanings when used in proper stock exchange contexts, dividenda, sklad, delnica, glavnica, nalozba and obveznica are financial terms of an inherently terminological nature. In English, the situation is slightly different; only dividend and investment belong to the financial field, while all other words have a wide range of uses and senses. In their full versions, CVS (cista vrednost sredstev) and NAV (net asset value) are structurally divergent but lexically transparent. 3. 2. SLO: simple NP borza dokapitalizacija kupnina lot nezaupnica pooblascenec pripojitev Statut VEP > EN: complex NP [N+N] [N+N] [N+N] [Adj+N] [N+PP] [N+N] [N+PP] [N+PP] [N+PP] stock exchange capital increase purchase price trading unit vote of no confidence proxy holder merger by acquisition Articles of Association NAV per unit Except for dokapitalizacija—capital increase, kupnina—purchase price, pripojitev—merger by acquisition and nezaupnica—vote of no confidence, which share at least some lexical elements, the remaining pairs are lexically completely divergent. B. Bozinovski, The Language of the Stock Exchange †¦ 157 3. 3. SLO: simple NP > EN: simple NP [N+N] [Adj+NP] [Adj+N] [N+PP] [Adj+NP] [N+N] [Adj+N] [N+PP] [N+N] [Adj+N] [Adj+N] unit futures point delisting derivative tick LJSE quote (n. ) ticket ticker security enota premozenja financne terminske pogodbe indeksna tocka izkljucitev iz (borznega) trga izvedeni financni instrument korak kotacije Ljubljanska borza narocilo za nakup in prodajo stevilka posla trgovalna koda vrednostni papir The lexically completely divergent Ljubljanska borza and LJSE deserve a word of mention. While having an adjectival premodifier (denoting the place) and a simple nominal head (denoting the institution) in Slovene, English lexicalizes the concept differently in several respects. First, Ljubljana in Ljubljana Stock Exchange is a nominal premodifier, as opposed to the adjective ljubljanski. Further, the simple borza has a complex equivalent in English, namely the compound stock exchange, the two terms being lexically miles apart (the word borza itself has nothing in common with stocks or securities or exchanges of any kind). What is more, all this is packaged into an English acronym of the stock exchange name, thus LJSE, which is common practice with English names of stock exchanges (New York Stock Exchange—NYSE, London Stock Exchange—LSE, National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotations— NASDAQ), while less so in Slovene. The Slovene name of the exchange either appears in its full form or is shortened to borza. English abbreviations and acronyms are a common feature of stock exchange terminology and have penetrated Slovene in their original forms in large numbers. Examples include ETF (exchange traded fund—indeksni vzajemni sklad), SI (systematic internalizer—sistematicni internalizator), MiFID (Markets in Financial Instruments Directive—direktiva o trgu financnih instrumentov), OTC (over-the-counter, which has no lexicalized equivalent in Slovene), FOK (fill-or-kill—narocilo z razponom in odstranitvijo neizvrsene kolicine). In these cases, there are no equivalent Slovene abbreviations (although descriptive equivalents do exist), since the English ones are recognized and actively used by all Slovene speakers of the LSP in question. Note also the difference between the highly idiomatic fill-or-kill as opposed to the descriptive Slovene expression. 3. 4. 3. 4. 1. SLO: complex NP > EN: complex NP Structurally and lexically transparent equivalents auction trading brokerage house avkcijsko trgovanje borznoposredniska hisa 158 Slovenski jezik – Slovene Linguistic Studies 7 (2009) 3. 4. 1. Structurally and lexically transparent equivalents (continued) electronic trading financial instrument institutional investor public company trading day elektronsko trgovanje financni instrument institucionalni vlagatelj javna druzba trgovalni dan  Note further instances of the so-called international words in both columns, underlining the international character of the terminology: avkcijsko—auction, financni—financial, instrument—instrument, elektronsko—electronic, institucionalni—institutional. Although we do have a native Slovene word for institution, which is ustanova, there is no semantically corresponding Slovene adjective (ustanovni in this case would be a false friend); this is why the Slovene term employs the international premodifier. 3. 4. 2. Structurally parallel, lexically unpredictable equivalents official market regulated market retail investor semi-official market average price initial public offering bullish market registered shares private bonds government bonds open-end fund borzna kotacija organizirani trg mali vlagatelj prosti trg enotni tecaj prva javna prodaja bikovski trend imenske delnice podjetniske obveznice javne obveznice vzajemni sklad Here we have NPs of the uniform structure Adj+N on both sides, and what is problematic is the lexical choices—either of premodifiers or of heads. In place of official one would expect a fusion with the words stock exchange (judging from borzen). Kotacija does have a direct translation, namely quotation, but the English term refers to the highest bid or lowest ask price available on a security at any given time and thus the two are false friends. The very specific Slovene term borzna kotacija, which stands for the part of the LJSE regulated market intended for companies complying with strict reporting and disclosure obligations, only has one equivalent in English, namely official market. For organizirani trg, many would expect organized market, which, however, is a mistranslation. Instinctively, and not being familiar with stock exchange terminology, a translator might also be tempted to translate the seemingly unproblematic mali vlagatelj as something like small investor, which would of course result in implications divorced from the stock exchange context. If looked at in isolation, prost, enoten, prodaja, trend, imenski, kotacija, podjetniski, javen would all get translations different from those in the above right B. Bozinovski, The Language of the Stock Exchange †¦ 159 column. Here they appear in typical multi-word lexical items from the language of the stock exchange, and demand specific equivalents. The above pairs are also illustrative of the different conceptualizations in the two languages. Take podjetniske obveznice—they are not *entrepreneurial bonds or *company bonds, but rather private bonds. What is more, although one might expect, in view of the logic of things, the opposite of private to be public bonds, English nevertheless calls them government bonds (while Slovene does see them as public, thus javne obveznice). 3. 4. 3. Structurally divergent, lexically parallel equivalents 3. 4. 3. a. Opposite order of lexemes or different parts of speech delnica [prostega trga] druzba za upravljanje [dvotirni] sistem [vodenja druzb] indeks [blue-chip delnic] indeks [celotnega trga] indeks obveznic posel s sveznjem struktura prometa vzdrzevalec likvidnosti N+[NP] N+PP [Adj]+N+ [NP] N+[NP] N+[NP] N+N N+PP N+N N+N [semi-official market] share management company [two-tier management] system blue-chip index [total market] index bond index block trade turnover structure liquidity provider [NP]+N N+N [NP+N]+ N N+N [NP]+N N+N N+N N+N N+N In phrases with indices, Slovene has plural nominal postmodifiers in the genitive case (indeks obveznic), while English will typically lexicalize the same concept though a singular nominal premodifier in the nominative (bond index). The delnice part of the respective Slovene NPs (indeks blue-chip delnic, indeks delnic investicijskih skladov) has a nil realization in English (blue-chip index, investment fund index). 3. 4. 3. b. Structurally different premodifiers avkcijsko trgovanje celotna trzna kapitalizacija delniska druzba osnovni kapital presezni certifikat tekoci podatki trzna kapitalizacija trzno narocilo cenovno obcutljiva informacija dobro pouceni vlagatelj auction trading total market capitalization joint-stock company share capital outperformance certificate real-time data market capitalization market order price-sensitive information well-informed investor 160 Slovenski jezik – Slovene Linguistic Studies 7 (2009) Slovene uses adjectival premodifiers where English has nominal ones, except in the last two cases, which both share the structure of a nominal head premodified by an adjective and even share the same head, but employ different premodifiers; the Slovene premodifier has the head obcutljiv premodified by the adverb cenovno, whereas in English the same information is lexicalized through a compound composed of a noun (price) and an adjective (sensitive). 3. 4. 3. c. Structurally different postmodifiers delnice investicijskih skladov predcasni odkup delnic stopnja donosa trzna kapitalizacija obveznic shares of investment funds early redemption of shares rate of return market cap of bonds The recurrent pattern here is a nominal postmodifier in the genitive case in Slovene as opposed to a postmodifying prepositional phrase (PP)—typically the of-phrase, as shown by all of the above examples—in English. Both groups of postmodifiers have the same function (namely that of expressing genitival relations), irrespective of their having different constructions; Slovene being a synthetic language, its expression of the genitive involves attaching genitival suffixes on postmodifying nouns, with English, an analytic language, having the same content expressed through an independent morpheme (the preposition of). Postmodifiers may be PPs on both sides, but with different heads: sredstva v upravljanju trgovanje z obveznicami sistematicni internalizator za delnice 3. 4. 4. N+PP N+PP NP+PP assets under management N+PP trading in bonds N+PP systematic internalizer in NP+PP shares Structurally and lexically divergent equivalents EN BTS trading system GBD brokerage house market maker TUVL segment 3. 4. 4. a. Explanatory equivalent BTS GBD TUVL segment The acronym TUVL stands for Trg uradnih vzdrzevalcev likvidnosti, BTS for borzni trgovalni sistem and GBD for Gorenjska borznoposredniska hisa, none of which have English counterparts. There are other Slovene acronyms and abbreviations that do not have direct English equivalents and need explanatory phrases when being translated into English, e. g. , CTG (celotna globina trga), ATVP (Agencija za trg vrednostnih paprijev), KDD (Centralna klirinsko depotna druzba), DZU (druzba za upravljanje), ID (investicijska druzba), PID (pooblascena investicijska druzba), and others. Disregarding the names of institutions, only a few are left, a situation B. Bozinovski, The Language of the Stock Exchange †¦ 161 somewhat different from that in English, which abounds in abbreviated forms. These, in turn, do typically not require explanatory Slovene phrases to be understood by Slovenes, being used world-wide by the speakers of the LSP in question. Slovene abbreviations, on the other hand, are not self-explanatory or known to English speakers, and therefore do need explanations. Cf. 3. 3. 3. 4. 4. b. Non-transparent equivalents Below are a few groups of recurrent constructions that appear in the two languages as equivalent: SLO: NP [NP(nomin. )+NP(gen. )] [Kodeks upravljanja] [javnih delniskih druzb] SLO: NP [N(nomin. )+N(gen. )] nihanje cen obrat kapitalizacije placilo kuponov revizija indeksov SLO: NP [N(nomin. )+NP(gen. )] indeks [delnic borznega in prostega trga] EN: NP [NP+N] [Corporate Governance] Code EN: NP [N+N] price volatility turnover rate coupon payment index review EN: NP [NP+N] [total market] index Note the contrastively problematic EN index review (similarly index performance, index structure, index constituents, etc), where the premodifying noun index is always in the singular, both if referring to a single index (SLO revizija indeksa) or several (SLO revizija indeksov). This calls for an attentive English-Slovene translator who must infer from context. SLO: NP [N(nomin. )+NP(gen. )] datum [zapadlosti zadnjega kupona] SLO: NP [N(nomin. )+N (gen. )] institut izstopa institut iztisnitve oddelitev druzbe SLO: NP [NP+PP] [prvi trgovalni dan] [brez upravicenja do dividende] [izvedeni financni instrumenti] [na blago] SLO: NP [NP/N+PP] [borzni clan] [z oddaljenim dostopom] narocilo [s preudarkom] EN: NP [N+N] coupon date EN: NP [cpd] sell-out squeeze-out spin-off EN: NP [N+N] ex-dividend date commodity derivatives EN: NP [Adj+N] remote member discretionary order. 162 Slovenski jezik – Slovene Linguistic Studies 7 (2009) SLO: NP [N+PP] delnice [v borzni kotaciji] 3. 4. 4. b. Non-transparent equivalents (continued) SLO: NP [N+PP] poslovanje [s sveznji] prenosi [med racuni istega imetnika] trgovanje [z vrednostnimi papirji] trgovanje [na podlagi notranjih informacij] SLO: NP [N+PP] potrdilo o pravnomocnosti SLO: NP [Adj+N] (borzni) clan kosovne delnice presecni datum EN: NP [NP+N] [official market] shares. EN: NP [N+N] block trading inter-accounts management securities trading insider dealing EN: NP [N(gen. )+NP] court’s [finality seal] EN: NP [N/NP+N] member (firm) [no par value] shares record date The above lists of corresponding construction patterns are far from exhaustive. We have merely made an attempt at classifying selected NPs both according to their structural (congruent or divergent) and lexical (transparent or oblique) properties, trying to show that there are innumerable patterns of correspondence between the two languages. 4.  Discussion and conclusion The present analysis has mapped out a complex web of interlingual correspondences between Slovene and English terms and expressions from the language of the stock exchange. The CA focused on the form of the identified pairs of NPs as well as on problems of meaning, discovering such interlingual difficulties as divergent polysemy, false friends, conceptual and lexical gaps. This was expected, since languages are known to differ in an unsystematic and largely unpredictable manner as to expressing the same content. We will now present our findings under the following three headings: a. Translation correspondence. Lexical (terminological) gaps The analysis has shown the prevalent type of translation correspondence between the identified Slovene and English NPs to be partial correspondence; it involves structural non-congruence, often coupled with complexities of meaning. Example pairs include: pooblascenec—proxy holder, trgovalna koda—ticker, posel s sveznjem—block trade, trzna kapitalizacija—market capitalization, promet clanov—turnover by member firms, nominalne delnice—par value shares, etc. There were also instances of complete correspondence, where the English and Slovene NPs were both structurally and semantically congruent, but these were a minority. Examples include: promet—turnover, trgovalni dan—trading day. B. Bozinovski, The Language of the Stock Exchange †¦ 163 Examples of nil correspondence between English and Slovene NPs have revealed lexical (or, rather terminological) gaps in the languages of the stock exchange, where certain concepts exist or have been lexicalized in one language but not in the other. English terms for which there are no ready-made Slovene equivalents include insider, blue-chip, OTC, and many others. Our expectations regarding the three types of translation equivalence to be found between lexical items in two languages, as laid down in the Introduction, have thus been confirmed. English is the lingua franca of business and finance, and this is also reflected (interlingually) in the language of the stock exchange. New concepts and terms for them are born in the Anglophone West, while the rest of the world adopts the English terminology and mostly just localizes it to a certain extent, often failing to come up with language-specific equivalent terms. As a result, Slovene stock exchange terminology abounds in carbon copies of English terms (blue-chip indeks, sistematicni internalizator, insajder), directly modelled upon their English counterparts, and descriptive expressions (izvedeni financni instrument, trgovanje na podlagi notranjih informacij, prvi trgovalni dan brez upravicenja do dividende). Especially tricky are virtually untranslatable English terms that have no lexical equivalent in Slovene at all (mistrade, market maker, OTC, hedge fund). Problematic as to their Slovene equivalents are also the idiom-like pumping dumping, painting the tape, wash sales, scalping, etc. When there are no ready-made translation equivalents (lexical, conceptual gaps), there are at least three options—a) to make up a new Slovene term, b) to opt for a descriptive equivalent, or c) to try to find an approximate â€Å"functional† equivalent. Descriptive expressions (posli, pri katerih je sprememba lastnistva financnih instrumentov zgolj navidezna for wash sales) can be long-winded. Functional equivalents (narocilo s skrito kolicino is a type of order very similar to iceberg order, but not identical to iceberg) can be inaccurate. The third option, to invent a new term, lies outside the scope of translation work, since in LSP it is not customary for translators to decide on preferred terms for concepts. These are for experts to agree on (sometimes in cooperation with linguists). Once they become used and catch on, the translator may recognize them as legitimate equivalents, based on expert advice, but not before, lest they become ghost words, i. e. terms that exist on paper, but not in actual use. There are also some Slovene terms with no mirror-image English equivalents, which is a general feature of any terminology, not just the language of the stock exchange. TUVL, BTS, and the like are limited to terms for concepts unique to the Slovene stock exchange trading platform. We can therefore speak of conceptual gaps. They are translated into English through explanatory equivalents, e. g. , market maker TUVL segment. b. Interference. Collocations, false friends and the like It is a known fact that language learners (translators as non-native speakers of an L2 included) are inclined to draw analogies with their L1 when constructing lexical units in L2. When the two languages overlap in their formal, semantic or grammatical features, this leads to positive transfer and correct L2 lexical items (terms and expressions). Slovene terms such as mednarodni razpis, nalozba, dividenda, obveznica and 164. Slovenski jezik – Slovene Linguistic Studies 7 (2009) their English translations are parallel in all of the above respects and thus unproblematic in translational and contrastive terms. If the formal, semantic or grammatical features of L1 and L2, however, do not overlap, or if they do but only partially (when meanings agree, but not forms, or the other way around), then constructing L2 terms on the analogy with L1 ones leads to lexical errors and we speak of interference or negative transfer from L1. This is a possibility with the bulk of Slovene stock exchange terms and expressions. Take aplikacija, for instance. A translator unfamiliar with the terminology of the field might be tempted to translate it as application, which, to my knowledge, has no specialized meaning in this field, the correct equivalent being the unpredictable cross trade. Or the much debated organizirani trg, which is not organized in English, but rather regulated market. Consider also the temptation of word-for-word rendering of korak kotacije, borzna kotacija, mali vlagatelj, prekinitvena avkcija and many others. Negative transfer works in the opposite direction as well, when it is known as backward interference; under the influence of L2, learners can be often tempted to remodel their L1 lexical items to match those in L2. Even if backward interference be at work, expressions such as financial markets, legal framework, investors would not cause any problems, since they are structurally and semantically parallel to their Slovene equivalents. It gets tricky when the Slovene term for open-end fund is not odprti sklad, but rather vzajemni sklad, and especially with terms such as quote. Quote has the attractive verbal equivalent kotirati that does exist and is widely used but with a different meaning, the correct rendering being narocilo za nakup in prodajo. The cross-linguistic floors are also slippery with terms such as regulated market, which appears unproblematic at first sight; in fact, however, regulirani trg is an expression that does not exist in the Slovene language of the stock exchange, where the same concept has been lexicalized through another lexeme—organizirani trg. Further, there are pairs of NPs that look deceptively similar, yet differ in important details, which we had anticipated in the Introduction to this article. For instance, trade in shares is trgovati z delnicami, assets under management is sredstva v upravljanju, right on a security is pravica iz vrednostnega papirja, bond (sg. ) index is indeks obveznic (pl. ), dobicek (sg. ) na delnico is earnings (pl. ) per share, and capital markets can either be kapitalski trg (sg. ) or kapitalski trgi (pl. ). Grammatical collocations are a notoriously difficult interlingual area, causing problems especially in encoding, and so are the singular—plural distinctions. When translating slovenski kapitalski trg into English, most would opt for the only reasonable choice, namely Slovene capital market. Yet the English prefer the plural expression, thus Slovene capital markets. Due to semantic tailoring, a lexical item may be endowed with a multitude of semantic shadings and consequently receive different counterparts in the other language. Trg, for instance, is not always market in the language of the stock exchange. Borzni and prosti trg are exchange and semi-official market, while for narocila na trgu we have orders sitting in the order book. Similarly, the adjective organizirani can either be organized (trading) or regulated (market) in English, while vzdrzevalec likvidnosti can either be liquidity provider or market maker, depending on the context. B. Bozinovski, The Language of the Stock Exchange †¦ 165 Conversely, the EN share is not always delez in Slovene; note the pairs share—delnica, official market share—delnica na borznem trgu, market share—trzni delez, share capital—osnovni kapital. This confirms our expectations worded in the Introduction on the possible discrepancy between translation equivalents of lexemes in isolation (aplikacija—application, organiziran—organized) and those of the same lexemes in a particular context (aplikacija—cross trade, organizirani trg—regulated market). It is one of the goals of contrastive lexicology to point out such controversial pairs of collocations and thus sustain the claim that translation equivalence is largely collocation-dependent. The analysis has also singled out Slovene and English NPs that look similar (have a similar form), but differ, at least partly, in meaning (the so-called false friends). One of them usually belongs to the LSP of the stock exchange, while the other has LGP applications divorced from the stock exchange context: quote (n. )—kotirati (v.), institutional inve.